Introduction
The Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization, marked the inception of urbanization in South Asia. Alongside Mesopotamia (or Sumeria) from 4500-1900 BCE, Egypt from 3200-1000 BCE, and Chinese civilization, it was among the earliest settlements displaying intricate societal structures. These regions are often referred to as the ‘Cradles of Civilization.’ To facilitate study, the Indus Valley Civilization has been categorized into three distinct phases.
Theory
The origin of Harappan culture remains a topic of debate, with no universally accepted theory. However, it is generally believed to have emerged from the indigenous village culture that predates the Harappan civilization.
Recent findings at Rakhigarhi have provided significant insights. DNA studies conducted on skeletal remains from the Rakhigarhi cemetery suggest that the people of the Indus Valley Civilization had an independent origin. This challenges previous theories that had proposed Steppe pastoral or Iranian farmer ancestry as their source of origin.
Town Planning
| Features | Description | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Town Planning | The city was divided into two parts: – Raised Part (Citadel): Housing for rulers and important public buildings – Lower Part (eastern side of town): Houses of common citizens – Public and Private sphere separation | Demonstrates social hierarchy, administrative authority, and an early form of urban planning with distinct areas. |
| Streets | The city followed a grid pattern, with streets intersecting at right angles, creating rectangular blocks. | Reflects the advanced knowledge of measurement and urban planning in the Harappan civilization. |
| Drainage System | Extensive drainage system with drains connecting all houses, made of mortar, lime, and gypsum, covered with large brick slabs. | Highlights the Harappan civilization’s commitment to health and sanitation. |
| Houses | Houses were typically multi-story, with no street-facing windows. Second stories were added when the first had subsided. | Suggests long-term habitation and adaptability in response to subsidence. |
| Building Materials | Standardized burnt-bricks with a 1:2:4 ratio were used consistently in all sites, with no use of stone. | Indicates the presence of centralized weights and measurement systems, distinguishing from contemporaneous civilizations. |
Society
| Features | Description | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Division in Society | Harappan society included three distinct social groups: rulers, rich merchants, and poor laborers residing in the lower part of the city. | Demonstrates division of labor, specialization, and well-organized administration in the Harappan society. |
| Clothing | Harappan people commonly wore cotton and wool garments, showcasing advancements in textile weaving and diversification of clothing choices. | Highlights progress in textile craftsmanship and fashion preferences among the Harappan civilization. |
| Food Habits | Harappan dietary habits varied by region, with Sindh and Punjab primarily consuming wheat and barley, while Rangpur and Surkotda favored rice and millets. Fish and mollusk consumption was widespread. | Reflects advanced agricultural practices and dietary diversity facilitated by fertile river valley settlements. |
| Religion | Harappans practiced Nature Worship, venerating gods represented by trees like the Peepal and animals, particularly the bull. They also worshipped Mother goddesses, Pasupati yogi (lord of cattle), and used Phallic symbols in their rituals. | Demonstrates a secular society with a lack of prominent temples or organized religion, distinguishing them from contemporaneous civilizations. |
| Script and Languages | The Harappan script was pictographic and logosyllabic, with symbols representing words. Writing followed a Boustrophedon pattern (right to left and left to right in alternate lines). The script disappeared by 1700 BCE. | The script’s enigmatic nature underscores the need for deciphering it, and the shared script hints at cultural integration during the Indus Valley Civilization. |
| Beliefs | Harappans believed in evil forces and ghosts, using amulets for protection. Such beliefs were common in primitive societies. | Reflects common superstitions and spiritual beliefs of the time. |
| Burial Practices | Harappans practiced north-south extended inhumation burials accompanied by food, pottery, jewelry, etc. Three burial types were observed: complete burial, fractional burial, and cremation followed by burial of ashes. | Reveals strong beliefs in an afterlife, mirroring contemporaneous civilizations, with varying burial practices and item offerings. |
Economy
| Features | Description | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Agricultural Economy | Main crops included Wheat, Barley, Rice (found in Lothal and Rangpur only), Dates, Mustard, and Cotton (the world’s first). | Demonstrates Harappans’ agricultural advancements, including wooden plowshares, well irrigation (Alladinho), dams, and irrigation canals (Dholavira). |
| Manufacturing | Terracotta: figurines of animals, humans (predominantly female), bangles, seals, bead-making (Chanhudaro and Lothal), gold and silver jewelry. Harappans utilized copper, bronze, silver, and gold; pure copper artifacts were more common. Skilled metallurgy with specialization (e.g., goldsmiths, bronze-smiths, brick-makers). | Highlights Harappan expertise in various crafts, metallurgy, and specialization in artisanal tasks. |
| Pottery | The Harappans employed Red and Black pottery (Redware painted with black designs) and were adept at using the potter’s wheel. They crafted various pottery types such as glazed pottery (Harappa), incised pottery, and perforated pottery. | Showcases Harappans’ pottery-making mastery, including diverse pottery styles and techniques. |
| Trade | Harappans engaged in trade with Mesopotamia (Sumeria), Central Asia, Persia, Afghanistan (Makan), and Dilmun (Bahrain) through barter. Export items included Teak, Amazonite, Slate, Lead, and Copper. Import items comprised Jade, Turquoise, Lapis Lazuli, Gold, Silver, and Tin. | Demonstrates advanced trade relations between the Harappan civilization and other regions, both within India and internationally. |
| Weights and Measures | Harappan weights followed a binary system, using multiples of 1, 2, 8, 16, 32 to 64, 160, 320, 640, 1600, 3200, and so on. These weights were typically made of chert, limestone, and steatite, usually cubical. Length measurements were based on a foot of 37.6cm and a cubit. | Highlights remarkable standardization and precision in weights and measures across the Indus Valley Civilization. |
| Seals | Harappan seals were made from soft stone (Steatite) and came in various sizes, ranging from half an inch to 2.5 inches. They were generally square or rectangular with carved animals and inscriptions, with the humpless bull being a frequently used motif. These seals were utilized for marking ownership of property and facilitating trade. | Represents a significant artistic achievement and played a crucial role in property ownership and trade within the civilization. |
Theory of Decline
IVC declined after 1900 BCE, however, reasons for the decline are still disputed. There are various theories for its decline such as – (* No need to remember all these names, just glance at it)
| Causes | Historians |
| Drying of Ghaggar river and increasing aridity | D.P Agrawal and Sood |
| Flood | Macay and S R Rao |
| Low Rainfall | Dales, Vatsa and Lambricks |
| Ecological Disturbance | Fairchild |
| Aryan Invasion | Wheeler and Gordon |
| Earthquake | Raikes and Dales |
| Natural Calamity | K.A.R Kennedy |
A recent study titled ‘Neoglacial climate anomalies and the Transformation of the Harappan Civilization,’ conducted by an international team of scientists, proposes that climate change may have been a significant factor contributing to the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization. Shifts in temperature and precipitation patterns resulted in a weakening of the monsoon and the eventual drying up of the Ghaggar-Hakra River. These environmental changes subsequently led to a decrease in crop productivity, ultimately causing the once urban Harappan society to transition into a more rural lifestyle.
Special Features of some Harappan sites
Certainly, here is the information presented in paragraph format:
Harappa (on Ravi River): This was the first Indus site to be discovered and had several unique features, including two rows of six granaries, a large number of wheat grains, and the discovery of a red sandstone torso of a nude male. Evidence of coffin burials and two types of burial practices, R37 type and cemetery H type, were also found at Harappa.
Mohenjo-Daro (Indus river): The second Indus site to be discovered, Mohenjo-Daro had the largest granary in the civilization, Pasupati seals, a famous bronze dancing girl sculpture, and a steatite image of a bearded man believed to be a priest. The site also revealed cylindrical seals from Mesopotamia, the Great Bath, signs of warfare through skeletons found on stairs, multi-pillar assembly halls, and a range of artifacts, including a bronze mirror, needle, saw, and a bronze statue of a bull.
Lothal (Bhogava River, Gujarat): Lothal was known for having the world’s first artificial dockyard, evidence of double burials of male and female individuals, cultivation of rice in Lothal and Rangpur, a beadmaker’s shop, terracotta models of boats, ivory scales, and it was a hub for cotton trade, often referred to as the “Manchester of the Harappan Civilization.” Lothal also had a circular button seal, two terracotta models of Egyptian mummies indicating trade with the Nile Valley civilization, and a painted story on an earthen jar resembling the cunning fox story in Panchatantra. Additionally, sacrificial altars were found at Lothal and Kalibangan, demonstrating medical and surgical skills.
Dholavira (Khadir bet island in the Kutch Desert Wildlife): Dholavira stood out with an inscription of a 10-alphabet signboard, megalith burials, evidence of warehousing settlements, gold rings (also found at Mandi and Daimabad), representation of all three phases of the Harappan culture, and its location on the Tropic of Cancer. The city also displayed advanced engineering with the use of sandstone and bricks, evidence of dams, irrigation, water reservoirs, water harvesting systems, and embankments. It was a walled city with heavy fortifications and served as a significant center of maritime trade.
Rakhigarhi (on Ghaggar-Hakra river, Haryana): Rakhigarhi is the largest IVC site in India and is known for its evidence of domestication of dogs, manufacturing of terracotta items (including idly-shaped terracotta), and a large quantity of painted pottery, suggesting that rich and dominant people lived there. Recent findings indicate that Rakhigarhi lacks the last phase of the IVC, possibly due to the drying up of the Saraswati River around 2000 BC.
Chanhudaro (on Indus river): Chanhudaro was known for its cotton textile industry, often referred to as the “Lancashire of IVC.” Unlike other IVC cities, Chanhudaro did not have a citadel.
Kalibangan (on Ghaggar river, RJ): Kalibangan was notable for the presence of wells in every house, evidence of mixed cropping, and the earliest ploughed fields in India. The site also revealed fire altars, indicating a cult of sacrifice.
Bhirrana (Haryana): Bhirrana is now considered to be the oldest discovered IVC site, dating back to 7500 BCE. It is distinguished by its ancient age, preceding even Mehargarh in Pakistan, which was previously considered the oldest.
Differences between IVC and Egyptian/Mesopotamian Civilization:
- Urban Planning: The IVC planned towns with a grid-like pattern, while Egyptian and Mesopotamian towns exhibited haphazard growth.
- Script: The IVC invented its own typical pictographic script, whereas Mesopotamia had cuneiform script, and Egypt had hieroglyphics, with both scripts having been deciphered.
- Writing Material: The majority of the IVC script was found on seals, while Mesopotamian script was primarily found on clay tablets, and Egyptians used papyrus sheets made of reeds.
- Extent of Civilization: The IVC covered an area 20 times larger than Mesopotamia and Egypt combined.
- Building Material: The IVC used burnt bricks, whereas Egyptians used dried bricks, and Mesopotamians used baked bricks.
- Religion: Unlike Egypt and Mesopotamia, the IVC did not have temples or elaborate religious structures.
- Weapons: There is no clear evidence of war or weapons in the IVC, whereas there is clear evidence of warfare in the other two civilizations.
- Decline of Civilization: The IVC declined after 1900 BCE, while both Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations continued to exist even after 1900 BCE.
Similarities in IVC and Egyptian/Mesopotamian Civilization:
- Both the IVC and the Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations developed along river valleys (Indus, Nile, and Tigris-Euphrates, respectively).
- They were all agrarian societies with a significant agricultural class responsible for feeding large urban populations.
- Women in these civilizations had relatively more empowerment compared to some other contemporary societies, with evidence of mother goddess worship and women’s economic activities.
- These civilizations had a thriving merchant and artisan base due to their agricultural surplus.
- They were highly urbanized with sophisticated transport and economic networks, allowing them to support advanced crafts, artistic production, sophisticated religions, technology, and government bureaucracies.
- Nature worship, including polytheistic religions involving nature deities, was prevalent.
- They all had well-established systems of writing and scripts.
- Similar burial practices, with items buried with the deceased for the afterlife, were observed in all three civilizations.
Facets of IVC yet to be ascertained
The decipherment of the Harappan script remains an enigma for several reasons:
- Limited Script Length: Unlike many ancient civilizations with deciphered scripts that feature long writings exceeding 100 characters, the Harappan script mostly presents texts with fewer than 30 characters. This scarcity of lengthy inscriptions makes decoding a challenging endeavor.
- Absence of a Rosetta Stone Equivalent: In the case of Egyptian hieroglyphs, the discovery of the Rosetta Stone inscribed in two Egyptian scripts and ancient Greek script greatly facilitated language decoding. Regrettably, no comparable multilingual script has been unearthed for the Harappan script.
- Mystery Surrounding IVC Origins: The origin of the people of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) remains shrouded in mystery. Little is known about their origins, language, social structure, governance, or even their personal names.
- Reassessment of IVC Extent: Recent excavations have challenged conventional wisdom, revealing that Rakhigarhi was a larger city than both Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, which were previously considered the epicenters of the Indus civilization. This expansion of our understanding further complicates the study.
- Debate Over IVC Decline: The decline of the IVC around 1800 BCE remains a subject of debate among scholars. The exact factors behind its demise remain inconclusive, adding to the intrigue.
- Links to Southern Civilization: Recent studies and excavations in Tamil Nadu have raised intriguing questions about the connection between the IVC and a potential urban, Bronze Age civilization in India’s southern regions. Some suggest that, following the collapse of the Indus civilization, remnants of this society might have migrated south. However, these findings are still a matter of dispute among researchers, adding layers of complexity to our understanding of ancient India’s history.
The mysteries surrounding the Harappan script, the enigmatic origins of the IVC, and its intricate connections to other civilizations continue to captivate researchers, inviting further exploration and discovery.