Palaeolithic Era
The Palaeolithic Era represents a remote cultural epoch in the evolution of human technology. It is marked by the inception and utilization of rudimentary chipped stone implements. Furthermore, the Palaeolithic Era was characterized by the crafting of diminutive sculptures (such as intricately carved stone effigies of women, clay depictions of fauna, as well as other skeletal and ivory engravings) and the adornment of cave walls with etchings, engraved motifs, and bas-reliefs.
The Palaeolithic Epoch in India is classified into three stages based on the types of stone tools employed by ancient inhabitants and climatic shifts:
- The initial phase spans a wide timeframe from approximately 600,000 to 150,000 BC.
- The second phase spans from 150,000 to 35,000 BC.
- The third phase extends from 35,000 to 10,000 BC.
The Lower Palaeolithic Epoch
The Lower Palaeolithic, often referred to as the Early Old Stone Age, encompasses the majority of the ice age’s duration. While the Early Old Stone Age may have commenced roughly two million years ago in Africa, it did not predate 600,000 years in the Indian subcontinent. Bori in Maharashtra is credited as the earliest Lower Palaeolithic site in India.
This epoch encompasses two primary cultural traditions:
- The Soanian tradition, which is a part of the East and Southeast Asian chopper chopping tool legacy.
- The Handaxe-cleaver or biface assemblages, representing the Acheulian tradition. This tradition is renowned across the western hemisphere of the Old World, including Africa, Western Europe, West Asia, and South Asia.
During this era, individuals employed hand axes, cleavers, and choppers as tools. The axes discovered in India bear a resemblance to those found in Western Asia, Europe, and Africa. These stone implements were predominantly used for tasks such as cutting, excavating, and skinning. Archaeological evidence has unveiled Early Old Stone Age sites along the banks of the Son (or Sohan) River in Punjab, now part of Pakistan. Additionally, numerous sites have been unearthed in Kashmir and the Thar Desert. Lower Palaeolithic tools have also been excavated in the Belan Valley of Uttar Pradesh and the arid expanses of Didwana in Rajasthan. Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh holds significance as an archaeological site, while the caves and rock shelters of Bhimbetka near Bhopal exhibit features of the Lower Palaeolithic era. These rock shelters are believed to have served as seasonal encampments for early humans. The inhabitants of the Lower Stone Age primarily subsisted on foraging for food, eventually transitioning to small-scale hunting of game, supplemented by a diet of fish and avian species.
The Middle Palaeolithic Epoch
The Middle Palaeolithic period saw the predominance of industries centered around flakes or small stone fragments. These artifacts have been uncovered in various regions of India, each displaying distinct regional variations. This culture entails a wide array of tools fashioned from flakes, with specialized techniques for their production. As a result, it is often referred to as the flake tool industry. Relics from this era have been discovered along the Narmada River and in areas south of the Tungabhadra River. The Belan Valley in Uttar Pradesh, situated at the foothills of the Vindhyas, abounds with stone tools and the fossilized remains of animals, including cattle and deer, from both the Lower and Middle Stone Ages.
The Upper Palaeolithic Era
On a global scale, the Upper Palaeolithic Era signified the emergence of novel flint-based industries and the arrival of modern Homo sapiens. The Upper Palaeolithic is distinguished by technological advancements in the production of stone tools, particularly the crafting of parallel-sided blades that were then fashioned into an assortment of implements by either blunting one side or adding a backing. In India, we discern the utilization of blades and burins, which have been excavated in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, central Madhya Pradesh, southern Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, and neighboring regions.
Caves and rock shelters, designed for habitation by early humans during the Upper Palaeolithic phase, have been uncovered at Bhimbetka. An assemblage from the Upper Palaeolithic era characterized by relatively substantial flakes, blades, burins, and scrapers has also been found in the upper strata of the sand dunes in Gujarat.
This reimagined narrative delves into the Palaeolithic period, exploring its complexities and the distinctive cultural shifts that defined each epoch within it.
The Mesolithic Era: Bridging Stone Ages
The Mesolithic period, often referred to as the Middle Stone Age, serves as a crucial bridge between the preceding Paleolithic era, characterized by chipped stone tools, and the subsequent Neolithic period, marked by polished stone implements. Notably, the Mesolithic era exhibits a material culture marked by heightened innovation and diversity compared to its Paleolithic predecessor. In the Indian context, this epoch spanned from approximately 9,000 B.C. to 4,000 B.C., and is distinguished by the introduction of Microliths—compact, bladed stone tools. This Mesolithic chapter in human cultural history emerged during the early Holocene period, preceding the advent of agriculture.
Variety in Tools and Technology
Microliths, being the predominant and most prevalent tool category during this cultural phase, are categorized based on geometric and non-geometric shapes. Geometric microliths encompass shapes such as trapezoids, triangles, and lunates or crescents. Non-geometric microliths, on the other hand, are denoted by the manner in which their backs are blunted, including partly, fully, or obliquely blunted blades. Alternatively, they are named according to their functions, such as scrapers, points, knives, blades, awls, burins, and borers. These versatile implements served as composite tools for tasks ranging from plant gathering and harvesting to slicing, grating, and processing plant fibers.
The Mesolithic toolkit also featured Macroliths, larger in size compared to Microliths, and a continuation of Upper Palaeolithic tool types like scrapers. Macroliths were designed for more heavy-duty applications. Additionally, bone and antler tools constituted another category of implements harnessed by Mesolithic communities.
Indian Mesolithic Culture
The Mesolithic, or Middle Stone Age, was a relatively shorter period when contrasted with the preceding Palaeolithic era. Its duration ranged from over thirty thousand years in regions like Sri Lanka and parts of Africa to approximately ten thousand years in India and West Asia. In addition to their use of microliths, Mesolithic people introduced several technological innovations. These innovations encompassed the development of tools like the bow and arrow for hunting, querns and grinders for processing plant foods such as roots and tubers, and hammer stones for grinding and pulverizing. This period also witnessed a profusion of artistic expression, including several thousand paintings and engravings. These artistic creations not only provide insights into their aesthetic sensibilities but also shed light on their capacity for innovation in various facets of culture, including technology, subsistence strategies, material culture, social organization, and religion.
Indian Mesolithic Sites
The earliest discoveries of microliths and other Mesolithic tools were made in the rock-shelters of the Mirzapur district in Uttar Pradesh. Several significant excavated sites in India include:
- Tilwara, Bagor, Ganeshwar in Rajasthan
- Langhnaj, Akhaj, Valasana, Hirpura, Amrapur, Devnimori, Dhekvadlo, Tarsang in Gujarat
- Patne, Pachad, Hatkhamba in Maharashtra
- Morkhana, Lekhahia, Baghai Khor, Sarai Nahar Rai, Mahadaha, Damdama, Chopani Mando, Baidha Putpurihwa in Uttar Pradesh
- Pachmarhi, Adamgarh, Putli Karar, Bhimbetka, Baghor II, Baghor III, Ghagharia in Madhya Pradesh
- Paisra in Bihar
- Kuchai in Odisha
- Birbhanpur in West Bengal
- Muchatla Chintamanu Gavi, Gauri Gundam in Andhra Pradesh
- Sanganakallu in Karnataka
- Tenmalai in Kerala.
These excavated sites have yielded a wealth of information concerning technology, material artifacts, burial customs, anatomical remains, and artwork, alongside charcoal evidence for dating these invaluable historical sites.
The Neolithic Epoch: A Pinnacle of Progress
The Neolithic Period, denoting the final phase of the Stone Age, stands as a remarkable juncture in human history. This epoch is distinguished by megalithic architecture, the proliferation of agricultural practices, and the utilization of finely crafted polished stone tools. It signifies a pivotal moment in the evolution of human culture when humanity transitioned from complete reliance on nature to harnessing it for their benefit.
Neolithic Culture
Agriculture
The Neolithic Revolution encapsulates the inception of agriculture, animal domestication, and the establishment of settled communities. It signifies the profound transformation from a society dependent on hunting and gathering to one rooted in food production. Neolithic inhabitants of this era cultivated a diverse array of crops, including ragi, horse gram, cotton, rice, wheat, and barley, earning them the title of food producers. Concurrently, they domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats.
Tools
In stark contrast to the preceding Palaeolithic period, the Neolithic era ushered in the era of polished stone tools and axes, often referred to as celts. These tools exhibit a refinement beyond the crude flaked stone implements of the Palaeolithic era. Additionally, tools and weapons crafted from bone found a place in the Neolithic toolkit.
Dwelling and Settlement
The introduction of plant and animal domestication led to surplus food production, necessitating storage facilities. Consequently, pottery-making emerged as a vital craft. With the shift from caves, open areas became the favored settlement locations, resulting in the construction of houses. These Neolithic houses took on various forms, including rectangular and circular mud and reed structures. Notably, mud-brick houses were prevalent in Mehrgarh, while pit dwellings were characteristic of Burzahom in Kashmir.
Pottery
The advent of agriculture and the need for food storage and preparation prompted the emergence of pottery during the Neolithic Age. Pottery from this period falls under categories such as grey ware, black-burnished ware, and mat-impressed ware.
Megalithic Architecture
A distinguishing feature of the Neolithic Age is its megalithic architecture. The term “megalithic” denotes massive stone structures or arrangements. These structures varied in form and purpose, contributing to the cultural landscape of the era.
Community Life
The surplus food production played a pivotal role in the development of early urban cultures in later contexts. Neolithic societies also exhibited common property rights and settled lifestyles.
Neolithic Cultures of India
Explorations and excavations have unveiled a treasure trove of insights into India’s Neolithic cultures. It’s noteworthy that these cultures did not uniformly develop or cease at the same time; regional variations existed. Each regional Neolithic tradition appears to have been shaped by local ecological conditions and is worthy of individual study. Broadly speaking, however, Indian Neolithic culture revolved around sedentary or semi-sedentary village life anchored in agriculture and pastoralism.
Social Organization and Belief System
Our understanding of the social organization of Neolithic communities remains limited due to scant evidence. It is believed that they formed sedentary and semi-sedentary settlements, possibly organized into tribes. Concepts of land and plant ownership began to emerge with the advent of plant and animal domestication. The presence of small houses suggests the existence of nuclear families. Ceramics and beads denote advancements in material culture production. Territory demarcation became evident, and burials, both human and animal, suggest the adoption of rituals and the veneration of the deceased. Worship of natural forces and fertility cults may have been part of their belief system.
In essence, the transition from hunting and gathering to food production ushered in significant changes in social and cultural development. It laid the foundations for the earliest Indian villages during the Neolithic era.
The Chalcolithic Era: Bridging Stone and Metal
The Chalcolithic period marks a transitional phase following the Neolithic Age, characterized by the introduction of metalworking, primarily copper and low-grade bronze. This culture, rooted in the use of both copper and stone, derives its name from the Greek words “chalco” meaning copper and “lithos” meaning stone. It is also referred to as the Eneolithic or Aeneolithic period.
Chalcolithic Culture in India
In India, the Chalcolithic era extended from approximately 2000 BC to 700 BC. This culture was prevalent during the Pre-Harappan phase and, in many regions, persisted into the Post-Harappan phase. The people predominantly inhabited rural areas near hills and rivers, shaping a unique way of life.
Characteristics of this Culture Include:
Pottery
One distinctive feature of the Chalcolithic period is the presence of polychrome painted pottery. These ceramics often include “fenestrated pottery,” characterized by pots with openings cut into the walls.
Domestication of Animals
Chalcolithic communities engaged in farming and domesticated animals such as sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs. This supplemented their diet, which also included hunting and fishing. The importance of milk and milk by-products, along with fruit trees like fig and olive, cannot be understated.
Agriculture
Cultivation was a central activity, with major crops including barley, wheat, lentil, bajra, jowar, ragi millets, green pea, and green and black gram. Traces of rice cultivation have also been found, indicating a diverse diet that included fish and rice. Different regions specialized in various crops, with eastern India producing rice and western India cultivating barley.
Houses and Burial Styles
Chalcolithic houses were constructed using stone or mudbrick. A notable architectural pattern was the chain building, where rectangular houses shared party walls on the short ends. Burial practices varied, from single interments to jar burials, small box-shaped above-ground ossuaries, and even rock-cut tombs.
Tools and Weapons
Metal, specifically copper and its alloys, was used to craft a range of tools and weapons, including knives, axes, fishing hooks, chisels, pins, and rods.
Art and Craft
Chalcolithic communities excelled in craftsmanship, producing finely crafted copper objects, ivory carvings, lime products, and terracotta items. Ornaments featured semiprecious stones and beads like agate, jasper, chalcedony, and carnelian. Additionally, the people possessed weaving and spinning skills, working with materials like flax, cotton, and silk thread, as evidenced by findings in Maharashtra.
Chalcolithic Cultures Identified by Geographical Location
Ahar Culture
The Ahar culture, also known as the Banas culture, is among India’s earliest Chalcolithic cultures. It thrived in regions with sites like Ahar, Balathal, Gilund, and Ojiyana in Rajasthan. Notably, Ahar culture is characterized by its ceramic traditions, including Tan ware, thin Red ware, Black and Red ware, and Grey ware.
Kayatha Culture
The Kayatha culture, located in Ujjain district, Madhya Pradesh, existed from 2000 to 1800 BC. It is recognized for its distinctive ceramic form called chocolate slipped ware or Kayatha ware. The culture practiced a mixed economy, combining subsistence farming, stock raising, and hunting-fishing.
Malwa Culture
The Malwa culture, prevalent in central India, had extensive distribution across the Malwa region. Notable sites include Maheshwar, Nagda, Kayatha, and Eran. Radiocarbon dating places this culture between 1900-1400 BC. The Malwa ware, characterized by buff or cream slips with dark brown painted patterns, was a prominent ceramic type.
Jorwe Culture
The Jorwe culture is a significant Chalcolithic culture of Maharashtra, extending throughout the state. Sites like Jorwe, Prakash, Daimabad, and Inamgaon provide insights into this culture’s characteristics. Jorwe communities engaged in dry farming, stock raising, hunting-fishing, and practiced crop rotation. Distinctive circular houses marked the late Jorwe phase.
Ochre Coloured Pottery Culture (OCP)
The Ochre Coloured Pottery culture is named after its fragile pottery with red ochre wash. It had a sedentary lifestyle and was identified in regions like Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh. The OCP’s chronological span ranges from 2600 to 900 BC.
Painted Grey Ware (PGW)
Painted Grey Ware, characterized by smooth, even-colored grey pottery, was considered a deluxe ware. It dates from 1100-500/400 BCE and exhibits a wide geographical distribution across the Indian subcontinent. The PGW culture is associated with wattle-and-daub and mud huts, subsistence farming, and animal husbandry.
In summary, the Chalcolithic period in India showcased a rich tapestry of diversity, characterized by distinct regional cultures and technological advancements, serving as a bridge between the Stone Age and the Bronze Age.